234 CHAPTER 11
KEY FIGURE
WILL KYMLICKA (BORN 1962) A Canadian political philosopher, Kymlicka is often seen as the leading theorist of liberal multiculturalism. In Multicultural Citizenship ([1995] 2000), he argued that certain ‘collective rights’ of minority cultures are consistent with liberal-democratic principles, but acknowledged that no single formula can be applied to all minority groups, particularly as the needs and aspirations of immigrants differ from those of indigenous peoples. For Kymlicka, cultural identity and minority rights are closely linked to personal autonomy. His other works in this area include Multicultural Odysseys (2007).
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Second, in many cases minority rights are seen as a way of countering oppression. In this view, societies can ‘harm’ their citizens by trivializing or ignoring their cultural identities – harm, in this case, being viewed as a ‘failure of recognition’ (Taylor, 1994). Minority groups are always threatened or vulnerable because the state, despite its pretence of neutrality, is inevitably aligned with a dominant culture, whose language is used, whose history is taught, and whose cultural and religious practices are observed in public life. Of particular importance in this respect is the issue of ‘offence’ and the idea of a right not to be offended. This in particular concerns religious groups which consider certain beliefs to be sacred, and are therefore especially deserving of protection. To criticize, insult or even ridicule such beliefs is thus seen as an attack on the group itself. This can be seen in relation to the phenomenon of ‘cultural appropriation’ (see p. 235).
KEY FIGURE
CHARLES TAYLOR (BORN 1931) A Canadian academic and political philosopher, Taylor drew on communitarian thinking to construct a theory of multiculturalism as ‘the politics of recognition’. Emphasizing the twin ideas of equal dignity (rooted in an appeal to people’s humanity) and equal respect (reflecting difference and the extent to which personal identity is culturally situated), Taylor’s multiculturalism goes beyond classical liberalism, while also rejecting particularism and moral relativism. His most influential work in this area is Multiculturalism and ‘The Politics of Recognition’ (1994).
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Third, minority rights have been supported on the grounds that they redress social injustice. In this view, minority rights are a compensation for unfair disadvantages and for under-representation, usually addressed through a programme of ‘positive’ discrimination. This has been particularly evident in the USA, where the political advancement of African-Americans has, since the 1960s, been associated with so-called ‘ affirmative action ’. For example, in the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), the Supreme Court upheld the principle of ‘reverse’ discrimination in educational admissions, allowing black students to gain admission to US universities with lower qualifications than white students.
Offence: (In this sense) to feel hurt, even humiliated; an injury against one’s deepest beliefs. Affirmative action: Policies or programmes that are designed to benefit disadvantaged minority groups (or, potentially, women) by affording them special assistance.
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